International Cooperation and Mechanism

• State and forest resource: Affriming state sovereignty and stae responsibility

• Low forest cover and unique type of forest in relation to the UNCED convention and debate on forests

• State and forest resource: Affriming state sovereignty and stae responsibility

Low Forest Cover and Unique Types of Forests in Relation to the UNCED Conventions and the Global Debate on Forests

1- Introduction

This background/issues paper consists of a brief text covering some issues for consideration in the inclusion or otherwise of the needs of low forest cover countries and unique types of forest in the three main UNCED Conventions and the global debate on forests, largely in the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) and its successor, the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF). An extensive review is included in an Annex of the actual provisions for meeting the special needs of low forest cover countries in the recent international debates, in particular:

(a) three of the existing Conventions related to forests and forestry

the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC),

the Convention on biological Diversity (CBD);

and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

provisions of Agenda 21 of UNCED

conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests in its final report

The aim of the paper is to contribute to discussion of possible areas where the agreements could be strengthened in regard to the needs of low forest cover countries.

None of the Conventions have been very long in operation; the FCCC and the CBD came into force in 1995 while the UNCCD was ratified in 1997. The present paper thus only looks at their provisions, rather than at the experience of countries in their implementation. Of the three Conventions, the UNCCD is directly relevant to the needs of LFCC. It is incorporates a holistic and participatory approach in which the conservation and management of existing trees, forests and other woodlands as well as reforestation and aforestation are seen as key elements contributing to the combatting of desertification.

 2- Background

Low forest cover can arise as a result of natural climatic or ecological conditions, as well as from human activities, and the situation may be constantly changing within a country.

Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features and resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, mountains, wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems are regional in scope, as they transcend national boundaries. Small islands and coastal areas are discussed in chapter 17 of Agenda 21.

Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Desertification, in particular, is caused by complex interactions among physical, biological, political, social, cultural and economic factors (from the Preamble to the UNCCD). Such factors will be discussed and identifed in the expert workshop on LFCC as will the definition of low forest cover.

Desertification effects about one sixth of the world's population, 70 per cent of all drylands, amounting to 3.6 billion hectares, and one quarter of the total land area of the world. The most obvious impact of desertification, in addition to widespread poverty, is the degradation of 3.3 billion hectares of the total area of rangeland, constituting 73 per cent of the rangeland with a low potential for human and animal carrying capacity; decline in soil fertility and soil structure on about 47 per cent of the dryland areas constituting marginal rained cropland; and the degradation of irrigated cropland, amounting to 30 per cent of the dryland areas with a high population density and agricultural potential.

3. Issues related to the inclusion of the interests of low forest cover countries and unique types of forest in the post-UNCED Conventions

The two main issues related to the inclusion of the interests of low forest cover countries and unique types of forest in the post-UNCED Conventions will emerge from the debates and conclusions of the Workshop. They are

identification of the common and particular needs related to low forest cover; and

definition of low forest cover as it is applied to a country – or to a location in a country

If these two points can be at least broadly settled, then consideration can be given to specific features of the Conventions as they relate to low forest cover countries. There would then appear to be three issues:

whether the existing Conventions, as presently agreed, include adequate provision to meet the identified and particular needs of LFCC;

if not, then whether the issues identified those which one or more of the Conventions could address,

allied to, whether amendment of the Conventions would help meet the particular needs of LFCC.

If the needs of low forest cover countries are such that one or more of the Conventions could address them, or if it would be agreed that amendment of one or more of the Conventions would help meet the particular needs of LFCC then there are some issues arising from the review of the international debate (see Annex) which could be considered for inclusion in the conventions regarding LFC countries and unique types of forest. They might include:

inclusion of the needs of low forest cover countries and unique types of forest as part of any holistic approach in an international policy agreement;

provision for coordination of international action, donor inputs, or for the exchange of information and experience between parties of the three Conventions regarding the needs of low forest cover countries, or unique types of forests;

the specific need to strengthen regional or sub-regional organisations;

the need for criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management, specifically developed for low forest cover countries and unique types of forest.

ANNEX

The following texts from Agenda 21, UN FCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, UN CCD and UN CBD could have some relation to the objectives of LFCCs. All aspects of different international instruments related to forests, such as their mandate, scope, objectives, programmee and management, transfer of technology, research and financial support, could also apply to the needs of LFCCs.

The relevant texts are categorized under the following titles:

Needs and Requirements, Fragile ecosystem and/or unique type, Policy making, Management and conservation, Providing financial resources and Applications. In addition, other texts generally relevant to forests which could also apply to LFCCs are also cited.

Chapters 11 (Combating deforestation and the Forest Principles), 12 (Managing fragile ecosystems: combating desertification and drought) and 13 (Sustainable mountain development) in some way refer to the objectives of LFCCs.

The Non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests (the Forest Principles) is the basic text of IPF work, and its programme elements organized based on contents of that (Table 1, documents E/CN.17/IPF/1996/24). Paragraphs 4, 7(b), 8(a), and 8(f) of forest principles refer to protected areas and unique ecosystems which Programme element I-5 of IPF prepared to cover its needs.

The Forest Principles constitute a non-legally binding “forest instrument”, agreed upon at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, that provides a framework for the sustainable development of all types of forests worldwide, while recognizing the sovereign right of countries over their forest resources, as well as the right to manage their forest resources according to their own goals and policies.

Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 urges countries to develop forest strategies and concrete plans of action for sustainable forest development. Specifically, it refers to the Forest Principles and contains a comprehensive description of the various policy areas that can address deforestation and promote sustainable forest management.

Para. 8(b) of Chapter 11 of Agenda 21 refers to fragile ecosystems and/or unique type.

In Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para. 12-1:

Fragile ecosystems are important ecosystems, with unique features and resources. Fragile ecosystems include deserts, semi-arid lands, mountains, wetlands, small islands and certain coastal areas. Most of these ecosystems are regional in scope, as they transcend national boundaries. This chapter addresses land resource issues in deserts, as well as arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. Sustainable mountain development is addressed in Chapter 13; small islands and coastal areas are discussed in Chapter 17.

In Paragraph 12-24-a of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Human resource development:

Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should: Establish mechanisms to ensure that land users, particularly women, are the main actors in implementing improved land use, including agroforestry systems, in combating land degradation (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Paragraph 12-24-a ).

In Paragraph 12-29-b of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Data and information:

Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should: Conduct inventory of natural resources (soil, water and vegetation) and their state of degradation, based primarily on the knowledge of the local population (e.g., rapid rural appraisal) (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Paragraph 12-29-b).

In paragraph 12-5; Basis for action; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21:

Adequate world-wide systematic observation systems are helpful for the development and implementation of effective anti-desertification programmes. At the time of writing Agenda 21, The capacity of existing international, regional and national institutions, particularly in developing countries, to generate and exchange relevant information was limited. And suggested that an integrated and coordinated information and systematic observation system based on appropriate technology and embracing global, regional, national and local levels was essential for understanding the dynamics of desertification and drought processes. It was also important for developing adequate measures to deal with desertification and drought and improving socio-economic conditions (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-5).

In paragraph 12-17,a,b,d; Objectives; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21:

The objectives of this programme area are:

As regards areas not yet affected or only slightly affected by desertification, to ensure appropriate management of existing natural formations (including forests) for the conservation of biodiversity, watershed protection, sustainability of their production and agricultural development, and other purposes, with the full participation of indigenous people;

To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for productive utilization and sustain their productivity for agropastoral/agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water conservation;

To improve management of forest resources, including woodfuel, and to reduce woodfuel consumption through more efficient utilization, conservation and the enhancement, development and use of other sources of energy, including alternative sources of energy (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-17,a,b,d).

In paragraph 12-19,b; Data and information; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21,

Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to environmental security considerations, drought resistant, fast-growing and productive plant species appropriate to the environment of the regions concerned (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-19,b).

In paragraph 12-23,a of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Scientific and technological means:

Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests, forest lands, rangeland and natural vegetation into research activities on desertification and drought (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-23,a).

In Para. 12-18,g of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21,

Promote and encourage investment in forestry development in drylands through various incentives, including legislative measures (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para. 12-18,g).

In paragraph 12-4- a of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, refer to one of

The programme areas :
- Strengthening the knowledge base and developing information and
monitoring systems for regions prone to desertification and drought, including
the economic and social aspects of these ecosystems (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-4- a).

In paragraph 12-6- a of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, one of the Objectives of the programme area is:

To promote the establishment and/or strengthening of national environmental information coordination centres that will act as focal points within Governments for sectoral ministries and provide the necessary standardization and back-up services; to ensure also that national environmental information systems on desertification and drought are linked together through a network at subregional, regional and interregional levels (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, paragraph 12-6- a).

In Para12.12,a ;Scientific and technological means ; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21,

Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of desertification and drought, should:

Undertake and update existing inventories of natural resources, such as energy, water, soil, minerals, plant and animal access to food, as well as other resources, such as housing, employment, health, education and demographic distribution in time and space (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.12,a).

And in Para. 12.16. An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilize the hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and land productivity. Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and economically feasible land-use systems. This will enhance the land carrying capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile ecosystems (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.16).

In Para12.17,b; Objectives; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21,

One of The objectives of the programme area is:

(b) To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for productive utilization and sustain their productivity for agropastoral/agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water conservation (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.17,b).

In Para12.18,b,h; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21,

For Management-related activities; Governments at the appropriate level, and with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforestation programmes, using drought-resistant, fast-growing species, in particular native ones, including legumes and other species, combined with community-based agroforestry schemes. In this regard, creation of large-scale reforestation and afforestation schemes, particularly through the establishment of green belts, should be considered, bearing in mind the multiple benefits of such measures;

- Promote the development and use of sources of energy which will lessen pressure on ligneous resources, including alternative sources of energy and improved stoves (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.18,b,h).

In Para12.20,a; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, For International and regional cooperation and coordination

The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should:

Coordinate their roles in combating land degradation and promoting reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in affected countries (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.20,a).

In Para12.23,a; of Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, For Human resource development

Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should:

Train members of rural organizations in management skills and train agropastoralists in such special techniques as soil and water conservation, water harvesting, agroforestry and small-scale irrigation (Chapter 12 of Agenda 21, Para12.23,a).

Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations working on the issue of desertification and drought, should:

... Combating land degradation through, inter alia, intensified soil conservation, afforestation and reforestation activities.

An increasing vegetation cover would promote and stabilise the hydrological balance in the dryland areas and maintain land quality and land productivity. Prevention of not yet degraded land and application of corrective measures and rehabilitation of moderate and severely degraded drylands, including areas affected by sand dune movements, through the introduction of environmentally sound, socially acceptable, fair and economically feasible land-use systems. This will enhance the land carrying capacity and maintenance of biotic resources in fragile ecosystems.

The objectives of this programme area are:
(a) As regards areas not yet affected or only slightly affected by desertification, to ensure appropriate management of existing natural formations (including forests) for the conservation of biodiversity, watershed protection, sustainability of their production and agricultural development and other purposes, with the full participation of indigenous people;
(b) To rehabilitate moderately to severely desertified drylands for productive utilisation and sustain their productivity for agropastoral / agroforestry development through, inter alia, soil and water conservation;
(c) To increase the vegetation cover and support management of biotic resources in regions affected or prone to desertification and drought, notably through such activities as afforestation/reforestation, agroforestry, community lowwry and vegetation retention schemes;
(d) To improve management of forest resources, including woodfuel, and to reduce woodfuel consumption through more efficient utilisation, conservation and the enhancement, development and use of other sources of energy, including alternative sources of energy.

Develop, test and introduce, with due regard to environmental security considerations, drought resistant, fast-growing and productive plant species appropriate to the environment of the regions concerned:
(a) Carry out accelerated afforestation and reforestation programmes, using drought-resistant, fast-growing species, in particular native ones, including legumes and other species, combined with community-based agroforestry schemes. In this regard, creation of large-scale reforestation and plantation schemes, particularly through the establishment of green belts, should be considered, bearing in mind the multiple benefits of such measures;
(b) Promote and encourage investment in forestry development in drylands through various incentives, including legislative measures;
(c) Promote the development and use of sources of energy which will lessen pressure on ligneous resources, including alternative sources of energy and improved stoves.

The appropriate United Nations agencies, international and regional organizations, non-governmental organizations and bilateral agencies should co-ordinate their roles in combating land degradation and promoting reforestation, agroforestry and land-management systems in affected countries.

Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should integrate indigenous knowledge related to forests, forestlands, rangeland and natural vegetation into research activities on desertification and drought.

Governments at the appropriate level and local communities, with the support of the relevant international and regional organizations, should establish mechanisms to ensure that land users, particularly women, are the main actors in implementing improved land use, including agroforestry systems, in combating land degradation.

UNFCCC does not refer directly to low forest cover countries; it only refers to forests as sink but not indicating low or high forest cover.

LFCCs could share in the following objectives of UN FCCC:

Forests as both sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide and a reservoirs of carbon,

Maintaining and improvement for increasing forest cover;

In the Preamble of UNFCCC:

Affirming that responses to climate change should be coordinated with social and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs of developing countries for the achievement of sustained economic growth and the eradication of poverty....

Recognizing that all countries, especially developing countries, need access to resources required to achieve sustainable social and economic development and that, in order for developing countries to progress towards that goal, their energy consumption will need to grow taking into account the possibilities for achieving greater energy efficiency and for controlling greenhouse gas emissions in general, including through the application of new technologies on terms which make such an application economically and socially beneficial.(UNFCCC, Preamble)

In Article 4, Commitments, of UNFCCC, Para. 7:

The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively implement their commitments under the Convention will depend on the effective implementation by developed country Parties of their commitments under the Convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology and will take fully into account that economic and social development and poverty eradication are the first and overriding priorities of the developing country Parties (UNFCC B, Art. 4-7).

In Article 4, Commitments, Para. 8:

In the implementation of the commitments in this Article, the Parties shall give full consideration to what actions are necessary under the Convention, including actions related to funding, insurance and the transfer of technology, to meet the specific needs and concerns of developing country Parties arising from the adverse effects of climate change and/or the impact of the implementation of response measures, especially on:

(a) Small island countries;

(b) Countries with low-lying coastal areas;

(c) Countries with arid and semi-arid areas, forested areas and areas liable to forest decay;

(d) Countries with areas prone to natural disasters;

(e) Countries with areas liable to drought and desertification;

(f) Countries with areas of high urban atmospheric pollution;

(g) Countries with areas with fragile ecosystems, including mountainous ecosystems;

(h) Countries whose economies are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or on consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products; and

(i) Land-locked and transit countries (UNFCC B, Art. 4-7).

In Preamble of UNFCCC:

Recognizing that low-lying and other small island countries, countries with low-lying coastal, arid and semi-arid areas or areas liable to floods, drought and desertification, and developing countries with fragile mountainous ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change (UNFCCC, Preamble).

In Article 3-3; Principles; of UN FCCC,:

In their actions to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures, taking into account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost. To achieve this, such policies and measures should take into account different socio-economic contexts, be comprehensive, cover all relevant sources, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases and adaptation, and comprise all economic sectors. Efforts to address climate change may be carried out cooperatively by interested Parties (UNFCCC, Art. 3-3).

In Article 4 –2; Commitments; of UNFCCC:

The developed country Parties and other Parties included in Annex I commit themselves and shall adopt national policies and take corresponding measures on the mitigation of climate change, by limiting its anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and protecting and enhancing its greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs. These policies and measures will demonstrate that developed countries are taking the lead in modifying longer-term trends in anthropogenic emissions consistent with the objective of the Convention. These Parties may implement such policies and measures jointly with other Parties and may assist other Parties in contributing to the achievement of the objective of the Convention and, in particular, that of this subparagraph (UNFCCC, Art. 4-2-a).

Each of these Parties shall Coordinate as appropriate with other such Parties, relevant economic and administrative instruments developed to achieve the objective of the Convention; and

Identify and periodically review its own policies and practices (UNFCCC, Art. 4-2-e-i,ii).

In Article 12-2-a,b; Communication of Information Related to Implementation; of UNFCCC:

Each developed country Party and each other Party included in Annex I shall incorporate in its communication the following elements of information:

A detailed description of the policies and measures that it has adopted to implement its commitment;

A specific estimate of the effects that the policies and measures referred to in subparagraph (a) immediately above will have on anthropogenic emissions by its sources and removals by its sinks of greenhouse gases (UNFCCC, Art. 12-2-a,b).

In Article 4-1-d,e; Commitments; of UN FCCC,

All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, shall:

- Promote sustainable management, and promote and cooperate in the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass, forests and oceans as well as other terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems;

- Cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change; develop and elaborate appropriate and integrated plans for coastal zone management, water resources and agriculture, and for the protection and rehabilitation of areas, particularly in Africa, affected by drought and desertification, as well as floods (UN FCCC, Article 4-1-d,e).

See Articles 4-7 and 4-8 under Needs and requirements, above.

In Article 4-1-c ,f of UN FCCC, Commitments:

All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and their specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances, shall:

- Promote and cooperate in the development, application and diffusion, including transfer, of technologies, practices and processes in all relevant sectors, including the energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management sectors (UNFCCC, 4-1b).

Take climate change considerations into account, to the extent feasible, in their relevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions, and employ appropriate methods, for example impact assessments, formulated and determined nationally, with a view to minimizing adverse effects on the economy, on public health and on the quality of the environment, of projects or measures undertaken by them to mitigate or adapt to climate change (UNFCCC, 4-1f).

Article 4(d) of UNFCCC specifically calls on Parties to promote sustainable management and conservation of forests and other natural ecosystems that serve as sinks of greenhouse gases. Related topics in the text of UNFCCC include the following:

... Aware of the role and importance in terrestrial and marine ecosystems of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases,

Recalling the pertinent provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/172 of 19 December 1989 on the implementation of the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification,

In their actions to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, such policies and measures should take into account different socio-economic contexts, be comprehensive, cover all relevant sources, sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases and adaptation, and comprise all economic sectors. Efforts to address climate change may be carried out co-operatively by interested Parties.

The Conference of the Parties, as the supreme body of this Convention, shall keep under regular review the implementation of the Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt, and shall make, within its mandate, the decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention. To this end, it shall:

Promote and guide, in accordance with the objective and provisions of the Convention, the development and periodic refinement of comparable methodologies, to be agreed on by the Conference of the Parties, inter alia, for preparing inventories of greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks, and for evaluating the effectiveness of measures to limit the emissions and enhance the removals of these gases;

UNCCD is relevant to low forest cover countries but does not refer directly to them as such.

LFCCs could share in the following objectives:

Causes of desertification,

Control desertification activities,

Rehabilitation and vegetation recovery include afforestiation and plantation.

In Preamble, of UNCCD:

Aware that arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas are the habitat and source of livelihood for a large segment of world population.

Recognizing the urgent need to improve the effectiveness and coordination of international cooperation to facilitate the implementation of national plans and priorities (UNCCD, Preamble).

In Article 3-a,b,c,d of UNCCD, Principles:

In order to achieve the objective of this Convention and to implement its provisions, the Parties shall be guided, inter alia, by the following:

The Parties should ensure that decisions on the design and implementation of programmes to combat desertification and/or mitigate the effects of drought are taken with the participation of populations and local communities and that an enabling environment is created at higher levels to facilitate action at national and local levels;

The Parties should, in a spirit of international solidarity and partnership, improve cooperation and co-ordination at subregional, regional and international levels, and better focus financial, human, organizational and technical resources where they are needed;

The Parties should develop, in a spirit of partnership, cooperation among all levels of government, communities, non-governmental organizations and landholders to establish a better understanding of the nature and value of land and scarce water resources in affected areas and to work towards their sustainable use; and

The Parties should take into full consideration the special needs and circumstances of affected developing country Parties, particularly the least developed among them.

In Article 17-1-b; of UNCCD, Research and development:

The Parties undertake, according to their respective capabilities, to promote technical and scientific cooperation in the fields of combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought through appropriate national, subregional, regional and international institutions. To this end, they shall support research activities that:

respond to well defined objectives, address the specific needs of local populations and lead to the identification and implementation of solutions that improve the living standards of people in affected areas (UNCCD, Article 17-1-b).

See Article 2-2 under Applications, below.

See Article 3-b under Needs and requirements, above.

In Article 4-2 of UN CCD, General obligations:

In pursuing the objective of this Convention, the Parties shall:

adopt an integrated approach addressing the physical, biological and socio-economic aspects of the processes of desertification and drought;

give due attention, within the relevant international and regional bodies, to the situation of affected developing country Parties with regard to international trade, marketing arrangements and debt with a view to establishing an enabling international economic environment conducive to the promotion of sustainable development

Integrate strategies for poverty eradication into efforts to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;

Promote cooperation among affected country Parties in the fields of environmental protection and the conservation of land and water resources, as they relate to desertification and drought;

Strengthen subregional, regional and international cooperation;

Cooperate within relevant intergovernmental organizations;

Determine institutional mechanisms, if appropriate, keeping in mind the need to avoid duplication; and

Promote the use of existing bilateral and multilateral financial mechanisms and arrangements that mobilise and channel substantial financial resources to affected developing country Parties in combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought. (UNCCD, Art.4-2).

In Article 5-b,e of UN CCD, Obligations of affected country Parties:

In addition to their obligations pursuant to article 4, affected country Parties undertake to:

establish strategies and priorities, within the framework of sustainable development plans and/or policies, to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;

provide an enabling environment by strengthening, as appropriate, relevant existing legislation and, where they do not exist, enacting new laws and establishing long-term policies and action programmes (UNCCD, Art. 5-b,e).

In Article 10-2-a,e,f of UN CCD, National action programmes:

National action programmes shall specify the respective roles of government, local communities and land users and the resources available and needed. They shall, inter alia:

incorporate long-term strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought, emphasize implementation and be integrated with national policies for sustainable development;

promote policies and strengthen institutional frameworks which develop cooperation and coordination, in a spirit of partnership, between the donor community, governments at all levels, local populations and community groups, and facilitate access by local populations to appropriate information and technology;

provide for effective participation at the local, national and regional levels of non- governmental organizations and local populations, both women and men, particularly resource users, including farmers and pastoralists and their representative organizations, in policy planning, decision-making, and implementation and review of national action programmes (UNCCD, Art. 10-2-a,e,f).

In Article 8-1; of UN CCD, Relationship with other conventions:

The Parties shall encourage the coordination of activities carried out under this Convention and, if they are Parties to them, under other relevant international agreements, particularly the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity, in order to derive maximum benefit from activities under each agreement while avoiding duplication of effort. The Parties shall encourage the conduct of joint programmes, particularly in the fields of research, training, systematic observation and information collection and exchange, to the extent that such activities may contribute to achieving the objectives of the agreements concerned (UN CCD, Article 8-1).

In Article 19-1-c; of UN CCD, Capacity building, education and public awareness:

The Parties recognize the significance of capacity building -- that is to say, institution building, training and development of relevant local and national capacities -- in efforts to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought. They shall promote, as appropriate, capacity- building:

by establishing and/or strengthening support and extension services to disseminate relevant technology methods and techniques more effectively, and by training field agents and members of rural organizations in participatory approaches for the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources (UN CCD, Article 19-1-b).

In Article 19-3-e; of UN CCD,

The Parties shall cooperate with each other and through competent intergovernmental organizations, as well as with non-governmental organizations, in undertaking and supporting public awareness and educational programmes in both affected and, where relevant, unaffected country Parties to promote understanding of the causes and effects of desertification and drought and of the importance of meeting the objective of this Convention. They shall:

assess educational needs in affected areas, elaborate appropriate school curricula and expand, as needed, educational and adult literacy programmes and opportunities for all, in particular for girls and women, on the identification, conservation and sustainable use and management of the natural resources of affected areas (UN CCD, Article 19-3-e).

In Preamble of UNCCD:

Recognizing further the importance of the provision to affected developing countries, particularly in Africa, of effective means, inter alia substantial financial resources, including new and additional funding, and access to technology, without which it will be difficult for them to implement fully their commitments under this Convention (UNCCD, Preamble).

In Article 6-b,c of UNCCD, Obligations of developed country Parties:

In addition to their general obligations, developed country Parties undertake to:

provide substantial financial resources and other forms of support to assist affected developing country Parties, particularly those in Africa, effectively to develop and implement their own long-term plans and strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought;

promote the mobilization of new and additional funding (UNCCD, Article 6-b, c ).

In Article 20-5,a; of UNCCD, Financial resources:

In order to mobilize the financial resources necessary for affected developing country Parties to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought, the Parties shall:

rationalize and strengthen the management of resources already allocated for combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought by using them more effectively and efficiently, assessing their successes and shortcomings, removing hindrances to their effective use and, where necessary, reorienting programmes in light of the integrated long- term approach adopted pursuant to this Convention (UNCCD, Art. 20-5,a).

In Articles 2-1,2 of UN CCD, Objective:

The objective of this Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas (UN CCD, Article 2-1).

Achieving this objective will involve long-term integrated strategies that focus simultaneously, in affected areas, on improved productivity of land, and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions, in particular at the community level (UN CCD, Article 2-2).

There are several common goals and objectives between this convention and the needs and requirements of LFCCs, because among the main causes of low forest coverage in those countries are aridity and drought. Related texts in UN CCD include the following. Some of the terms used for the purposes of this Convention could be used in the same line for FLCC objectives, and this terminology is included below.

The Parties to this Convention,

Reflecting the urgent concern of the international community, including States and international organizations, about the adverse impacts of desertification and drought,

Acknowledging that desertification and drought are problems of global dimension in that they affect all regions of the world and that joint action of the international community is needed to combat desertification and/or mitigate the effects of drought,

Noting the high concentration of developing countries, notably the least developed countries, among those experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, and the particularly tragic consequences of these phenomena in Africa,

Noting also that desertification is caused by complex interactions among physical, biological, political, social, cultural and economic factors,

Appreciating the significance of the past efforts and experience of States and international organizations in combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought, particularly in implementing the Plan of Action to Combat Desertification which was adopted at the United Nations Conference on Desertification in 1977,

Recognising the validity and relevance of decisions adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, particularly of Agenda 21 and its chapter 12, which provide a basis for combating desertification,

Bearing in mind the relationship between desertification and other environmental problems of global dimension facing the international and national communities,

Bearing also in mind the contribution that combating desertification can make to achieving the objectives of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity and other related environmental conventions,

Terminology:

"desertification" means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities;

"combating desertification" includes activities, which are part of the integrated development of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas for sustainable development, which are aimed at:

(i) Prevention and/or reduction of land degradation;

(ii) Rehabilitation of partly degraded land; and

(iii) Reclamation of desertified land;

"drought" means the naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation has been significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resource production systems;

"mitigating the effects of drought" means activities related to the prediction of drought and intended to reduce the vulnerability of society and natural systems to drought as it relates to combating desertification;

"land" means the terrestrial bio-productive system that comprises soil, vegetation, other biota, and the ecological and hydrological processes that operate within the system;

"land degradation" means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as:

(i) Soil erosion caused by wind and/or water;

(ii) Deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and

(iii) Long-term loss of natural vegetation;

"arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas" means areas, other than polar and sub-polar regions, in which the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration falls within the range from 0.05 to 0.65;

"affected areas" means arid, semi-arid and/or dry sub-humid areas affected or threatened by desertification;

"affected countries" means countries whose lands include, in whole or in part, affected areas;

In Article 5, In addition to their obligations pursuant to Article 4, affected country Parties undertake to:

Address the underlying causes of desertification and pay special attention to the socio-economic factors contributing to desertification processes;

In Article 6, Obligations of developed country Parties in addition to their general obligations:

Encourage the mobilisation of funding from the private sector and other non-governmental sources; and

Promote and facilitate access by affected country Parties, particularly affected developing country Parties, to appropriate technology, knowledge and know-how.

Capacity building, education and public awareness:

... By providing appropriate training and technology in the use of alternative energy sources, particularly renewable energy resources, aimed particularly at reducing dependence on wood for fuel...

Affected country Parties of the region may include, in their national action programmes, measures relating to:

Legislative, institutional and administrative areas;

Land use patterns, management of water resources, soil conservation, forestry, agricultural activities and pasture and range management;

Management and conservation of wildlife and other forms of biological diversity;

Protection against forest fires;

Promotion of alternative livelihoods; and

Research, training and public awareness. 

UNCBD does not refer directly to low forest cover countries; it only refers to genetic resources as plant or animals and not to forest or low forest cover.

LFCCs could share in the following objectives:

Forest as rich habitat for plants and animals,

Conservation of genetic resources.

In Annex 1; Paragraph 1 of UNCBD, Identification and monitoring:

Ecosystems and habitats: containing high diversity, large numbers of endemic or threatened species, or wilderness; required by migratory species; of social, economic, cultural or scientific importance; or, which are representative, unique or associated with key evolutionary or other biological processes (UNCBD, Annex 1, Para. 1).

In Article 16-3,4 of UNCBD, Access to and Transfer of Technology:

Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, with the aim that Contracting Parties, in particular those that are developing countries, which provide genetic resources are provided access to and transfer of technology which makes use of those resources. And also, with the aim that the private sector facilitates access to, joint development and transfer of technology (UNCBD, Art. 16-3,4).

In Article 19-1; of UNCBD, Handling of Biotechnology and Distribution of its Benefits:

Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as appropriate, to provide for the effective participation in biotechnological research activities by those Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, which provide the genetic resources for such research, and where feasible in such Contracting Parties (UNCBD, Art. 19-1).

In Preamble of UNCBD, The Contracting Parties,

Conscious of the intrinsic value of biological diversity and of the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components,

Reaffirming that States are responsible for conserving their biological diversity and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner,

Noting further that the fundamental requirement for the conservation of biological diversity is the in-situ conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings,

Noting further that ex-situ measures, preferably in the country of origin, also have an important role to play,

Stressing the importance of, and the need to promote, international, regional and global cooperation among States and intergovernmental organizations and the non-governmental sector for the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components,

Desiring to enhance and complement existing international arrangements for the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components (UNCBD, Preamble).

In Article 1 of UNCBD, Objectives:

The objectives of this Convention, to be pursued in accordance with its relevant provisions, are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including by appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights over those resources and to technologies, and by appropriate funding (UNCBD, Article 1).

In Article 8-a,b,b,d,e,f,k of UNCBD, In-situ Conservation:

Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:

Establish a system of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;

Develop, where necessary, guidelines for the selection, establishment and management of protected areas or areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;

Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity whether within or outside protected areas, with a view to ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;

Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings;

Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas;

Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems and promote the recovery of threatened species, inter alia, through the development and implementation of plans or other management strategies;

Develop or maintain necessary legislation and/or other regulatory provisions for the protection of threatened species and populations (UNCBD, Art. 8-a,b,b,d,e,f,k).

In Article 9,a,b,c of UNCBD, Ex-situ Conservation:

Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, and predominantly for the purpose of complementing in-situ measures:

Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity, preferably in the country of origin of such components;

Establish and maintain facilities for ex-situ conservation of and research on plants, animals and micro-organizms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources;

Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for their reintroduction into their natural habitats under appropriate conditions (UNCBD, Article 9,a,b,b).

In Article 10,a,b,c of UNCBD, Sustainable Use of Components of Biological Diversity:

Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate:

Integrate consideration of the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources into national decision-making;

Adopt measures relating to the use of biological resources to avoid or minimize adverse impacts on biological diversity;

Protect and encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements (UNCBD, Article 10,a,b,c ).

In Preamble of UNCBD,

Acknowledging that the provision of new and additional financial resources and appropriate access to relevant technologies can be expected to make a substantial difference in the world's ability to address the loss of biological diversity,

Acknowledging further that special provision is required to meet the needs of developing countries, including the provision of new and additional financial resources and appropriate access to relevant technologies,

Acknowledging that substantial investments are required to conserve biological diversity and that there is the expectation of a broad range of environmental, economic and social benefits from those investments (UNCBD, Preamble).

In Article 9,e of UNCBD,

Cooperate in providing financial and other support for ex-situ conservation (UNCBD, Article 9,e).

In Article 19-2 of UN CBD, Handling of Biotechnology and Distribution of its Benefits:

Each Contracting Party shall take all practicable measures to promote and advance priority access on a fair and equitable basis by Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, to the results and benefits arising from biotechnologies based upon genetic resources provided by those Contracting Parties. Such access shall be on mutually agreed terms (UN CBD, Article 19-2).

In Annex I, Para. 2 of UN CBD, Identification and monitoring:

Species and communities which are: threatened; wild relatives of domesticated or cultivated species; of medicinal, agricultural or other economic value; or social, scientific or cultural importance; or importance for research into the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, such as indicator species (UN CBD, Annex I, Para. 2).

All references to biological diversity in this convention could be used for LFCC objectives related to unique types of forest as important source of plant diversity. Related texts in UN CBD include the following:

From Preamble,

Noting that it is vital to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity at source,

Aware that conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity is of critical importance for meeting the food, health and other needs of the growing world population, for which purpose access to and sharing of both genetic resources and technologies are essential,

Use of Terms, for the purposes of this Convention:

"Biological diversity" means the variability among living organizms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

"Ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganizm communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

"Genetic material" means any material of plant, animal, microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity.

The provisions of this Convention shall not affect the rights and obligations of any Contracting Party deriving from any existing international agreement, except where the exercise of those rights and obligations would cause a serious damage or threat to biological diversity.

In Art. 2-1-a. of Kyoto Protocol:

Each Party included in Annex I, in achieving its quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3, in order to promote sustainable development, shall: Implement and/or further elaborate policies and measures in accordance with its national circumstances, such as:

Protection and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, taking into account its commitments under relevant international environmental agreements; promotion of sustainable forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation;

Promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture in light of climate change considerations;

Research on, and promotion, development and increased use of, new and renewable forms of energy, of carbon dioxide sequestration technologies and of advanced and innovative environmentally sound technologies (Kyoto Protocol, Art. 2-1-a- ii, iii,iv).

See Art. 2-1-a-ii under Policy making, below.

In Art. 10-b,i, of Kyoto Protocol,

All Parties, taking into account their common but differentiated responsibilities and

their